Human well–being is a reflection of basic material needs for a good life, health, positive social relations, security, and freedom. It is influenced by a range of socio-cultural factors, such as geography, ecology, gender and background. Ecosystems fundamentally support human well–being by supplying ecosystem services. Satoyama—a natural environment comprised of human settlements and diverse ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, farmlands, and grasslands—have ensured human well–being over the ages particularly at the local level by providing food, fuel and other material goods, regulating local climates and ecosystems, fostering cultural ties, and supporting local production systems and ecological cycles. However, the recent decline in satoyama has undermined the local economy and society, thereby affecting human well–being and threatening future generations.

IICRC held the 3rd Ishikawa Roundtable Seminar on 24 June 2006 to discuss challenges for the sustainable management of satoyama for human well–being. The seminar brought together scholars, practitioners, and the public to explore ways in which satoyama can be managed on a sustainable basis, by referring to the current conditions and trends in the areas of wetlands, agriculture, forestry, and culture.

Key issues discussed in the seminar were:

• Recent loss and degradation of satoyama
• Current gap between satoyama and human well–being
• Creation of business opportunities in satoyama
• Cooperation among Stakeholders and the Rights and Roles of Local Residents
• A multisectoral approach for re–establishing links between satoyama and human well-being

Recent Loss and Degradation of Satoyama
Dr. Ademola Braimoh, JSPS-UNU postdoctoral fellow, indicates that considerable amounts of species are under threat of extinction in various types of wetlands around the world. For example, 21 per cent of the total bird species that are predominantly wetland–dependent are extinct or globally threatened, and nearly one third of the world amphibian species are threatened with extinction. Moreover, among the waterbird biogeographic populations whose trends are known, 41 per cent are in decline. The Living Planet Indices measuring freshwater, marine and terrestrial species populations indicate an overall decreasing trend since the beginning of the 1980’s, and between 1970 and 2000, all three indices had declined at a span of 30–50 per cent.

Mr. Hironobu Tajiri who is the Chief Ranger at Kamoike Observation Center managed by Wild Bird Society of Japan , notes that out of the 10 hectares of Katano Kamoike —a freshwater lake in Katano town—in Kaga City of Ishikawa Prefecture (which was included in the Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance in 1993) the rice paddies within the lake which covered 80,000 square meters in 1950 were abandoned and disappeared by 1999. Thus, the 300-year history of rice cultivation which began with the digging of a drain tunnel in Kamoike back in 1678 came to an end. Although the transformation of wetland into forests due to the increase in plant life could be hampered through rice cultivation, as rice cultivation diminished and the transformation of the wetland progressed, a build up of plant remains causing the water level of the lake to drop. Moreover, the rice paddies at Kamoike were once filled with water during the winter period and served as wintering spots for ducks, but with the decrease and disappearance of rice paddies, wintering ducks which numbered approximately 30,000 twenty years ago have been reduced to a mere 3,000–4,000 today.

Dr. Heiichi Kawabata Visiting Professor of the Office of Community Relations at Kanazawa University describes how the Shiroyone Senmaida —terraced paddy fields in Shirayone town—in Wajima City of Ishikawa Prefecture, where farmland and a hamlet expand in about 100 meters inland from the coast is a tourist destination extolled for its stunning vistas still today. In actuality, however, this famous spot only accounts for about one third of the total farmland in the area. The remainder of the farmland has been left abandoned.

The loss of satoyama and decline in quality also heralded a decline in services which satoyama once afforded human well–being. For instance wetlands provide diverse services; provisioning food such as fish and grains and fresh water, regulating climate and hydrological flow, conferring spiritual and aesthetic value, and supporting soil formation and nutrient cycling. However, with a reduction of wetlands and decline in quality, wetlands have lost the ability to perform their original functions to provide the services. Mr. Tajiri points out how a style of cast net duck hunting traditionally practiced at Kamoike since 1688 called “saka-ami-ryo” is in fear of discontinuance due to the decrease in duck populations and the lack of successors for saka-ami-ryo style duck hunting. Thus, adverse changes to the Kamoike environment are also accompanied by a decline in the capacity to hand down traditions and culture. Dr. Braimoh emphasises that recovering wetland loss is difficult or extremely costly, while wetland degradation may be reversed through rehabilitation efforts but the rehabilitation would be expensive. The adverse changes in satoyama pose enormous costs on future generations besides depriving them of ecosystem services derived from satoyama.

Current Gap between Satoyama and Human Well–Being
What drives the loss and degradation of satoyama? The direct factors which make immediate impacts on the ecosystems of satoyama, involve the land–use conversion due to the abandonment of agricultural cultivation and the development of residential districts, the infrastructure development, the pollution, and the introduction of invasive alien species. However it is important to keep in mind that these factors fundamentally stem from structural problems in the social, economic, and political mechanisms of human activity. Dr. Braimoh explains that the direct factors resulting in the destruction and degradation of ecosystems are caused by underlying factors including population problems, economic development, poverty and inequality, insufficiency in institutional arrangements, and global environmental changes such as climatic change.

Particularly in the field of agriculture, Dr. Kawabata explains that although the decisive reason for the demise of farming in satoyama is a lack of labour force, he suggests that the underlying cause is that people’s outlooks on livelihood, nature, and agriculture have become dissociated from each other in their daily lives. There is a high-level concern for satoyama as a source for leisure and a pool for nature, as what people expect from satoyama represents outdoor activities, preservation of natural landscapes and traditional culture, and the protection of wild plants and animals. Nevertheless, there is little concern or expectation from satoyama as a locus for industrial development such as agriculture.

The actual farmland in satoyama is in crisis due to the abandonment of cultivation, rural–urban migration, the aging workforce, and stagnation of agriculture. Fifty years ago, the agriculture in satoyama featured a self-sufficient style of multiple farming which involved the raising of livestock in addition to the production of diverse crops, the farming techniques dependent on human and animal power, and the limited use of agricultural chemicals and artificial fertilizers. In those days satoyama supported agricultural operation and people’s livelihoods by supplying food, fuel and compost, and maintained human well–being through a reciprocity among satoyama, agricultural production and livelihoods. Nowadays, however, as a result of monoculture for commercial farming, mechanized farming techniques, dependency on agricultural chemicals and artificial fertilizers, and the end of livestock raising, satoyama has become less used for both human livelihood and agricultural production. Agricultural census data taken from villages confirms this trend and indicates a broad decline in farming households, decrease in farmers with livestock, the rapid increase of single–crop rice farmers, and the increased leasing of agricultural lands.

Mr. Iwao Nakagawa from the Ishikawa Forest Supporters Committee states that although the secondary forests of satoyama cannot be maintained without human involvement, they have now become unprofitable despite much time and effort required for their maintenance, and are no longer beneficial in livelihood. He further emphasises that the persistent problems of aging and dwindling populations in satoyama of Ishikawa Prefecture are making sustainability and recovery ever more difficult. Mr. Tajiri describes how the abandonment of rice cultivation and the decline in saka-ami-ryo have caused the decline of duck populations in Kamoike and resulted in a progressive psychological distancing of landowners from Kamoike. Whether in the case of farmlands, forests, or wetlands, the former reciprocal system linking humans to satoyama has now disintegrated, and the dissociation of satoyamafrom human well–being negatively affects the current status and trends in the area.

Creation of Business Opportunities in Satoyama
it is high time that a strategy be devised to re-evaluate the economic value of satoyama and utilize it in a sustainable manner. Mr. Nakagawa explains that the Ishikawa Forest Supporters Committee as a volunteer group has responded to local requests to provide assistance for maintaining satoyama through such activities as forest thinning, underbrush cropping, mushroom cultivation, and the restoration of pine forests damaged by pine weevil. But he points out that the real task is to address how these activities can pay through the autonomous efforts of local residents.

For example, as mushrooms cultivated in satoyama by local residents are less appealing in terms of color and shape compared to mushrooms currently on the market, strategies are needed to carve out sales channels. Another problem that must be addressed is that drug infusions to restore the damaged pine forests are extremely costly. Although the first trunk injections used drug samples donated by a drug manufacturer as part of their sales promotion, in future the local residents need to find ways to cover these costs or explore alternative ways to restore the pine forests.

Today, many local communities including those in Ishikawa Prefecture are employing various production and sales strategies to utilize the bounty from satoyama. Mr. Tajiri cites as an example the marketing of a local brand of rice called “Kaga–no–Kamo–mai Tomoe” (hereafter, kamo–mai) which will help recover the wintering ducks in Kamoike and serve to increase the income of farmers. Watering rice paddies during the winter period will not only encourage ducks to return to the Kamoike, but will make positive impacts on the rice paddies in terms of fertilization and weeding due to duck manure as well as duck foraging which curbs the growth of unwanted weeds.

The kamo–mai harvested from the rice paddies flooded over the winter period is purchased by a volunteer group for its sales at higher prices than normal. The kamo–mai, compared with rice harvested from paddies which are not flooded over the winter period, is sold at a higher price of 17,000 yen per 60 kilogrammes. In actuality, as costs normally allocated for fertilizers and herbicides can be minimized, this allows them to achieve an overall difference in price of over 66,000 yen per 60 kilogrammes. At present, only one farming household is engaged in the production of kamo-mai, and sales channels need to be further expanded. Still, due to growing interest in health and increasing concern for nature conservation, almost 80 per cent of kamo–mai purchasers have become repeat customers. As similar examples, Dr. Kawabata refers to “kinzo–mai” which is a brand of rice cultivated under the climatic conditions of Kanakura village located in a valley in Wajima City of Ishikawa Prefecture; a brand of sake—Japanese rice–wine—called “maizokin” produced by sake merchants who use kinzo–mai; and production of high–value added rice such as organic rice and glutinous rice from Kamiyasato village in Komatsu City of Ishikawa Prefecture.

The value of satoyama has not yet been reasonably estimated, nor widely recognized. Mr. Nakagawa indicates that decision makers tend to see greater economic value in converting satoyama especially located closer to urban areas into other land uses such as commercial, industrial, or residential districts. He also suggests while the elderly strongly feel the sense of duty to pass down the natural and cultural heritage of satoyama to younger generations, awareness among young people is scant, as most of the participants in satoyama maintenance activities or interactive tours are elderly and there is little youth involvement. Dr. Braimoh emphasises the need to evaluate the total economic value of satoyama as possessing not only direct use and indirect use values, but option value (attached to future use opportunities) as well as existence value, and also stresses the need to carefully examine before making decisions, the full range of benefits that can be derived from satoyama. In considering strategies to fully utilize satoyama in a sustainable manner, it is important to comprehensively evaluate the economic value of satoyama, and create business opportunities among others so that more people can excavate its value.

Cooperation among Stakeholders and the Rights and Roles of Local Residents
Cooperation among various stakeholders is key to the sustainable use of satoyama for human well–being, and to promote the conservation and restoration of satoyama. The restoration of satoyama whose connections with local residents have become tenuous, cannot be achieved through any singular effort by local residents, NGOs, or scholars, and requires the concerted participation by various parties.

Dr. Kawabata emphasises that it would be extremely difficult for local residents to successfully market and brand agricultural products produced in satoyama without outside help in areas such as product development and establishment and expansion of sales channels. Recently, more local communities have been active in satoyama restoration activities through conducting product development and finding original sales channels in collaboration with food businesses and other outside partners. Also some villages learn from other villages and seek cooperation beyond their village areas. Dr. Braimoh cites examples of cooperation between Japan, South Korea, and China to conserve tidal wetlands, suggesting possible regional or international cooperation among the satoyama areas possessing similar problems and goals.

In promoting cooperation among stakeholders, the rights and roles of local residents need to be taken into account. Dr. Braimoh contends that it is essential to center the local residents who are most close to satoyama amongst the various parties involved in the restoration efforts so that they can define and identify problems by themselves towards substantive solutions. He further emphasises that in promoting the value of satoyama which is currently underestimated, the profits generated by satoyama should be returned to local communities. Any cooperative efforts to conserve and restore satoyama will be ineffectual without participation of the local residents and such activities should involve protecting the interests of the local residents. In this connection, Dr. Kawabata refers to the networking case at the Satoyama Satoumi Nature School in the Noto peninsula headed by Professor Nakamura of Kanazawa University, and draws the attentions to the role of the satoyama village-based researcher as a key player in connecting various stakeholders including local residents, government and universities.

The issue of land ownership is fundamental in considering the relationship between local residents and the other stakeholders. Many of satoyama lands are private while many others are public or state–owned. According to Mr. Nakagawa, the majority of volunteer activities such as tree planting, bamboo grove maintenance and tree thinning are conducted on public land which is easily accessed by outsiders, resulting in being less effective to restore satoyama which is often on private land or common land jointly owned by some villagers. In this regard, the Forest Supporters committee first obtains permission from landowners, and conducts most activities on private land or common land while strengthening ties with local residents.

According to Mr. Tajiri, Kamoike where the pieces of land were originally owned by farmers and used as paddy fields presents a unique ownership pattern among Japan’s wetlands designated in the Ramsar list. Here the formation of a council comprised of land owners, the users and other stakeholders, enables them to discuss and make rules for the maintenance and preservation of Kamoike. Dr. Kawabata states that property rights to farmland in Japan have already been settled and clarified, but ownership and usage patterns of satoyama differ among villages and as such the generalization of the patterns is not easy. Understanding ownership and usage patterns of satoyama is crucial to find a way to build a cooperative relationship that corresponds to each local context.

It is also a reality that the relationships among residents are not always cooperative but sometimes problematic as the troubles among them are often passed down. This requires external and internal changes in communities in order to develop constructive and cooperative relations centered upon the local residents. Professor Koji Nakamura from the Institute of Nature and Environmental Technology and Faculty of Science of Kanazawa University states the needs that local stakeholders who seek assistance from outside sources should be aware of their local circumstances, and not simply be donor- or externally-driven. He refers to the current situations of satoyama conservation activities in Japan that while those in metropolitan areas such as Tokyo and Osaka are vigorous, those in Ishikawa where the problems of depopulation and aging are severe draw less attentions and are also under-staffed.

Mr. Nakagawa emphasizes the importance of fostering interaction between local residents and the Forest Supporters committee to support satoyama maintenance activities under the leadership of local residents. The interaction allows volunteers to build trust with local residents and identify local problems so that they can find a way to solve the problems together. It also allows local residents to rediscover themselves and cultivate a sense of pride and loyalty to their surroundings. Local residents are said to see the outsiders including volunteers as purchasers or consumers of products grown in satoyama and also as providers of information useful in developing marketing strategies for the products. Building the relationship in which both local residents and outsiders empower each other hastens problem solving.

A Multisectoral Approach for Re-establishing Links between Satoyama and Human Well-Being
The management of satoyama seeks a multisectoral approach, as satoyama involves different sectors including agriculture, forestry and wetlands. Dr. Braimoh mentions that this approach, in which decision makers see multiple sectors in an integrated manner, enables them to identify common cruces among the sectors and to make decisions comprehensively by discerning pros and cons of policy options in each sector. This may consequently benefit the long–term and sustainable management of satoyama. In taking this approach, he further discusses compensating the affected groups that produce non–marketed ecosystem services but miss the opportunities to make profits through satoyama preservation.

The ties linking human livelihood to satoyama are collapsing, as satoyama becomes undervalued. Mr. Nakagawa expresses his concern that although the ongoing satoyama conservation activities enhanced by some non-profit organizations in Ishikawa Prefecture extend over several sectors, they have yet to become concerted as an integrated programme. For restoring the reciprocal links between human well–being and satoyama, integrating different sectors and addressing the problems comprehensively is essential. Aiming to maximize benefits on the whole, policies should exclude such instruments to the disadvantages of the whole—as the subsidies promoting excessive use or destruction of satoyama. At the same time, in promoting conservation policies it is important to consider compensating or supporting groups that risk losing the expected profits by conforming to the policies, as those groups may include landowners who fail to derive profits by converting their land for farming or some other industries.

For further information:
Alphonse Kambu
Director, IICRC
E-mail: kambu@ias.unu.edu